Module
Profile | Overview | Full
Concept Map
Module 1: The developing person
Section 2 Human development |
Theories of
development
|
Human development 
Theories
of development
In order to gain a solid understanding of
the various aspects of child development, we will discuss the broad principles
of the underlying theories. When you commence module two, you will
begin to note the similarity between the developmental and learning theories.
The discussion of the theories to follow is by no means comprehensive.
If you feel you require further clarification on some of the issues, you
will find greater detail and further resources in each of the areas of
development or consult the relevant chapter in a child development text.
Use the concept map to guide you through the specific theories in each
of the areas of development. It is essential that you have a sound understanding
of these theories and their relationship to child development.
A theory may be defined as an orderly
integrated set of statements based on observation that describes, organises
explains and predicts behaviour.
Keep this definition in mind when considering
the following theories. 
Mid twentieth century theories
Psychoanalytic
Theory (Freud & Erikson)
Psychoanalytic Theory is a theory of development
proposed by
These approaches provide a detailed and holistic
look at the individual and the factors that have influenced their overall
social development.
Key Ideas
-
Children progress through stages in which
they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations.
-
Method of conflict resolution effects long
term psychological adjustment.
-
Development as a long term process.
Behavioural
& social learning
Behaviourism is a view of development where
observable events and behaviours are the focal point of study. Behaviourists
consider development to be a continuous process with learning defined as
a result of change in behaviour. Behaviourists consider the environment
to be key to a child’s overall development. Behaviour is learned
through the processes of classical and operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
This theory was based on the studies of Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov and his experiments with dogs. From these experiments
he developed the notion of classical conditioning – we may associate one
stimulus with another to bring about a desired response. John Watson was
able to replicate Pavlov’s results using children in experiments.
Both scientists found that we could modify both animal and child behaviour
by controlling associations between stimulus and responses.
Consider the ways that you apply the principles
of classical conditioning in the environment in which you work. What
stimuli do you use in order to produce desired outcomes in your students?
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Skinner believed that people would behave
in ways that lead to pleasant outcomes and avoid behaving in ways that
lead to unpleasant outcomes. He believed that we might shape the behaviour
of others by introducing reinforcers and punishment, using the notion that
reinforcers would increase desired behaviour and punishment would decrease
undesirable behaviour.
Do you think these principles work with
the children you come into contact with? Does their effectiveness
vary depending on the context in which you work – Special Education, Early
Childhood or Primary?
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
Social learning theory is based on the notions
of reinforcement and conditioning introduced in behavioural theory. The
key proponent of this theory is Albert Bandura, who introduced the notions
of modelling and imitation as key elements of learning and development.
Moving from the premises of behaviourism, Bandura proposed that children
are able to learn without the use of reinforcement. In more recent
times Bandura has shifted the focus of his theory to the more cognitive
aspects of social interaction and has therefore relabelled his theory the
Social Cognitive Theory.
In both the behavioural and social learning
theories it is important to note that the environment plays the key role
in a child’s overall development.
If you were to agree with Bandura’s ideas
and note the capacity of others to influence a child’s development, how
may this effect your daily interactions with children? Consider the
role that modelling and imitation plays.
Cognitive
development (Piaget)
Of all of the theories presented in this section
Piaget’s theory will probably be the most familiar to you. Cognitive
developmental theory is based on the ideas of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget.
Piaget’s theory is centred on observations of his children in infancy and
childhood. Piaget’s theory is predominantly based around the development
of thought in children, although his work does explore moral reasoning
and some aspects of social development. Piaget believed the child
is an active seeker of knowledge. As a result of his observation he developed
a series of stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, the preoperational,
the concrete operational and the formal operational. As part of his theory
Piaget also developed some key notions of
the way in which the child actively builds mental structures.
Optional multiple choice
test
Optional multiple choice test from, Berk,
L., Child
development, 5th edn, Companion Websites.
Current perspectives
Sociocultural
theory (Vygotsky)
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is possibly
the theory given the most credence at present. Vygotsky believed
the child’s culture and their interactions with others is significant in
their overall development – especially in relation to cognitive development.
In particular, Vygotsky views a child’s interactions with adults and more
able peers as key to their overall development. He believed that
a child would internalise dialogues with others and use this information
to guide actions and acquisition of new skills on later occasions. From
Vygotsky’s perspective learning is dependent on support from adults. Key
to Vygotsky’s theory are the notions of private
speech, scaffolding and the zone of proximal development.
How could you apply Vygotsky’s ideas in
an Early Childhood, Primary or Special Education setting?
Information
processing
The information processing theory of cognitive
development views the brain as similar to a computer with both input and
output devices. The mind may be considered a system for manipulating symbols
and information. It is the function of the brain to code, transform
and organise information. There are a variety of information processing
models at present. Like cognitive theory and sociocultural theory,
the information processing theory views the child as an active seeker of
knowledge who adapts their thinking in response to the environment.
The information processing model advocates the presence of perception,
attention, memory, planning strategies, categorisation, etc from birth.
Ethology
(Lorenz)
Ethology refers to a view of development that
stresses the importance of biology, evolution and sensitive periods in
a child’s overall development. Key to this theory is the notion of
imprinting – the concept of rapid innate learning in critical time periods
(optimal time periods in which behaviours will emerge). Lorenz developed
this theory through his research with geese. This theory stresses
the importance of biology to the development of behaviour.
Consider the young children with whom
you have come in to contact. Do you agree with the notion of critical
periods in development? Consider the idea in terms of a child’s ability
to communicate, or for those in the classroom the idea of learning to read.
Justify your response.
Ecological
model (Bronfenbrenner)
The final theory to be discussed in this section
is the Ecological theory proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. This theory
highlights the significance of external stimuli in a child’s overall development.
This model consists of a series of five environmental systems that interact
to influence a child’s development. These systems are the microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and the chronosystem. The systems range
from the child’s immediate family and surroundings to the broader social
structures and services. It is in the way that these systems interact that
will influence a child’s development. Bronfenbrenner presented his
theory using a model consisting of concentric circles. It is worth
viewing this model in a child development text to strengthen your understanding
of the related concepts.
Use the model to explain the effects of
television on children in the context in which you teach. What influence
or role does each system play in the child’s/children’s TV viewing?
Readings
If you feel you require further clarification,
you will find greater detail and further resources in each of the areas
of development in this module or consult the relevant chapter in a child
development text.
| Stop and think
Post a response on the forum |
Complete the focus questions/tasks presented
with the aforementioned developmental theories. |
Optional multiple choice
test
Optional multiple choice test from, Berk,
L., Child
development, 5th edn, Companion Websites.